GIS for Archaeology and CRM

About a year ago I posted a short blurb about an archaeology project I was working on that incorporated a SketchUp model. The model was not so much the focus, or even a requested, of the project, but the data and interest were there, so… I modeled.

Briefly, the this project entailed documenting a series of foundation walls that are eroding from the edges of the Valley Creek in front of General Washington’s Headquarters in Valley Forge National Historic Park, Pennsylvania. Unable to control the flooding of this flashy little stream, the National Park Service asked that the walls be documented and a small area excavated to determine the age of the walls. As the records indicate, there were a number of mills at this location. Two of them dated to the mid 1700’s and were standing when George Washington called this plot home during the brutal winter of 1776.

To make a short story shorter, the archaeology was done, a nice foundation wall was exposed, and the eroding foundations were linked to the archaeology and historic maps. Construction methods and limited artifacts told us that the foundations eroding from the bank were more likely from the mid to late 1800’s and no the 1700’s. Finding a handful of late 1700’s artifacts underneath of the exposed foundation proved that it was older than the original mills. The conclusion: the foundation walls were part of the 1880’s Areca Paper mill. Built on and from the remnants of earlier buildings, this mill operated from 1880 to through the 1890’s. The entire complex was torn down in 1909 after the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania bought the property.In a super interesting twist, a comment received on the previous post of this models first generation, was from a gentlemen who had a family history tied to the mill! Paul Atkinson wrote:

“My Great grandfather worked at this mill in the late 1870 and 1880.My grandmother was born (1873) in a house just across the valley which her father bought after coming to the United States from England after the Civil War. Apparantly the mill went out of business late 1890.My grandmother tended cows on the very site of this mill. I recall seeing the foundation around 1940 or earlier when I very young. I was happy to see this historic reconstruction . The home my great grandfather bought in 1875 still stands and is a privite owned home . It was built in 1734..Seeing this gives me great pleasure. Also, knowing the fact my ggg grandfather served with Layfettye and George Washington at Valley Forge in 1777-1778. Paul Atkinson”

Using old documents and maps and the data we learned, I created a model of the Areca mill. (I <3 SketchUp!) Further establishing the historic visual context, I placed the mill model into photos of the landscape. This was a really fun part of the project (which was really my spare time, but people seemed to like it). Show is a recreation of an 1890’s photo.

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This is a question I get every so often and the short answer is “Yes”, but finding one can be a challenge. With an increasing number of GIS savvy archaeological students graduating from college and looking to apply their art to the trade, GIS specific positions are in demand.

Knowing that a few students have landed on this blog, I though I would say a few words and compile a list of links that are a good starting point for the job search.

Job Fields

Within the broad field of archaeology, there are a number of settings that employ GIS techniques to archaeological data sets. In the US, most of this work is done in Cultural Resource Management firms in the private sector. These firms range in size from small shops to branches of large engineering firms. Each end of the spectrum has pros and cons. The GIS work in a CRM firm can be very monotonous at times, but new projects are always around the corner. If you don’t mind filling your time with repetitive database management and computer cartography, punctuated with cool analysis projects, CRM could be a good fit.

Academic departments are also a good place to wow our colleagues with archaeological algorithms and ancient analysis. Many archaeology departments have their token professor who uses GIS. Some departments are much more in depth and specialize in GIS in archaeology. Though chances are, if you are looking for a professor position, you know the challenges that are ahead of you. If I had the endurance to stick it out for the PhD., becoming a prof. would be ideal.

Museums and non-profit foundations are also a place to look for positions. Often times, these positions are based on specific projects and grants, so longevity may not be in the cards. Thought, arrangements such as this can lead to an impressive resume of very interesting projects. High variability in the pay scale and high turnover make this a demanding setting, but great data sets and interesting projects could make it very rewarding.

Finally, GIS is also applied to archaeology at the State and Federal government level. Each state has a State Historic Preservation Office [SHPO] (or something similarly named) that advises other agencies and private companies on archaeological regulations and acts a the repository for historic and archaeological data for the state. Many of the SHPOs I am familiar with have at least one GIS person if not more. SHPOs have a tremendous amount of sensitive data on their hands and many people who need access to it. Not wanting to be the bottle neck, many SHPOs across the country have and are making attempts to automate data access. This process, for most SHPOs, is a huge undertaking transforming dozens of paper maps and thousands of forms to databases and web front ends, a process that takes years. Landing in one of these positions provides great project experience and offers insight into the working of the political world.

Job Skills

Archaeologists in general are skilled in many different fields. An archaeologists needs to know bit about pedology, geology, geomorphology, biology, chemistry, geography, and beer-ology to name a few. Working with computers in archaeology is no different. Many positions are as much computer generalist as they are GIS person. Be prepared to format reports, create spreadsheets and DBs, fix a computer, run a GPS, hack your outdated software, and most importantly, create your boss’s Powerpoint presentation. Further, many GIS archaeologists are also archaeologists and therefore required to swing a shovel when they are needed. Although digging the frozen much on the side of New Jersey highway in January sucks, sometimes taking a break from pixels is a good change of pace.

Links

As a preamble, I think it is important to emphasize that connections, networking, and personal commendation or more likely to land you a job than blindly sending emails. Try giving a phone call to local CRM firms and museums; often times, websites are way out of date and you could get the jump on an open position. What’s the worst that can happen?

The list below is somewhat organized. I am sure there are plenty more resources out there, so if I am missing any, write a comment or email me.

General Info:

• Society for American Archaeology job postings
  
• Archaeology/GIS Specialist job description from archaeology.about.com

Archaeology Job Postings:

• Shovelbums Archaeology job postings
• Archaeologyfieldwork.com job postings
  
• eCultural Resources job postings
  
• Archaeological.org job postings
  
• Museum Jobs postings

List of SHPOs and CRM Firms

• List of State Historic Preservation Offices
  
• List of CRM Firms Worldwide
  
• List of CRM Firms for US
  
• Not GIS specific, but a listserv discussion on Archaeology job skills (last post is quite apropos)
  

Some UK GIS Job sites (Thanks to Steve White)

• General GIS jobs in the UK #1
• General GIS jobs in the UK #2
  
• General GIS jobs in the UK #3

Some Academic Departments with GIS/Archaeology

• University of Arkansas and Center for Advanced Spatial Technologies
  
• SUNY Buffalo and National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis
  
• Washington State University
• University of Sydney
• University of Glasgow
  

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Sorry for the lack of posts over the 4th of July Holiday. My favorite fishing spot does not have Wi-Fi

Back to the posting…

This is the title of a recent thread on the Online Archaeology forum that has drawn a great response with some interesting observations.

The Discussion

The thread started innocently enough with a few folks asking about applications of GIS in archaeology, if it is valued, and whether it is worth while to take a class in it. As with the Online Archaeology site, many of the responses and view points here are from the UK.

Initially, many responses stated that they have used of heard of GIS in archaeology here and there, but overall it was too expensive. User AntArch, came to the table with the first informative response clearing the air of some misconceptions and describing more the essence of GIS, how it can be used in archaeology. Citing the lack of university training, lack of exemplar data sets available, and resistance from the contract/professional units due to time and cost, AntArch ultimately agreed that, yes, GIS is undervalued in archaeology.

A number or responses back and forth generally agreed that GIS is a very powerful tool for the archaeological tool chest, but often unused because of the real or perceived notion that is is too expensive, there is a lack of trained users and a confusion about what the “GIS” is and what it can do. To me the latter seems like a major reoccurring theme.

Then the discussion got very interesting! From the pleasant banter of general agreement, user “Snooks” words cracked like thunder (that may be a bit dramatic, but…)

“I am in a key IT position in one of the major contractors in the UK… I can tell you I have not seen GIS used in commercial archaeology. Too expensive and too time consuming…We want jobs to come in fast and reports to go out fast. No time/money to waste on GIS analysis.”

Well, that was one hell of a statement. AntArch followed this is a well crafted response expressing dismay for Snooks point of view and arguing the basics of what contract archaeology is all about. Not that this is the topic of the discussion, but Snooks obviously brought it into play with his/her statement. Snooks and AntArch had it our back and forth, with Snooks taking the business is business hard line. Snooks goes so far as to say that commercial archaeologists fain a desire to be academics, but we “inherently” cannot because of our pursuit for the almighty buck (or 0.781933 euro). After a few volleys, Snooks conceded that ideally, collecting “GIS data” is the proper and ethical thing for archaeologists to do, but in this business climate, it won’t fly, so don’t bother getting training because it won’t get you a job. I’m glad no body told me that when I was in school!

The responses that followed were all in support of AntArch’s pro-GIS position. Mostly stating that they too work for a commercial company using GIS practices on nearly all projects. Further, these responses addressed the common gripe of too much money and time and encouraged students to take a look into GIS as an addition to their studies.

The Conclusion

Although Snooks dollar-first-archaeology-later attitude was abhorrent within the forum, it certainly opens a can of worms that is right for the picking. When GIS techniques and practice is so evidently useful to archaeologists, what is the barrier that keeps it from common acceptance. As shown, time/money is the most often cited reason, but is it more of a contract vs. academic problem, or is it just a lack of understanding of what a GIS point of view is capable of?

It seems to me that the misunderstanding of what “GIS” actually IS causes a rift which trickles down to create the subsequent issues. Surely, I am no GIS prophet who claims to “get it”, but I have dealt with GIS and Archaeology enough to see the bigger picture. Within the forum discussion, the term “GIS” is often batted around as a commodity; a thing you have or do not have, GIS either is or is not. Of course, GIS is not a singular thing, rather a collection of things composed into a system that has objects and properties. The classic analogy is GIS as a toolbox. Tools can be used in different ways to solve different problems. To know how to address an issue, you need to know your tools. GIS is endlessly scalable. GIS tools can be used in an archaeological project from the level of visualizing GPS points, a quick aerial/satellite overlay, or complex model building and analysis.

Within the forum, the “too expensive” argument for GIS is put in it’s place by suggesting the numerous open source / freely licensed GIS programs (See a recent post by Mapz the GIS librarian). As far as the “too expensive” argument applied to training personnel, I am sure one could find a GIS knowledgeable intern or entry level archaeologist for a low price. I was one of those for a number of years and I know there are plenty more out there. The computer skills needed to learn your way around a GIS are not for beyond the basic skills most college kids already have. I would stress that a back ground in Geography and GIS theory is as important, if not more so than computer skills, but getting your foot in the GIS/Archaeology door does not have to be costly.

The discussion on the Online Archaeology Forum is a very important discussion for Archaeology and a whole. The replies give good insight into the level that GIS has permeated archaeology and has become (or not become) an accepted tool. The topics raised by the simple title “GIS; Undervalued in Archaeology?” go far and wide beyond the use of GIS in archaeology. I hope this discussion develops as time goes on.

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Although my blog “GIS for Archaeology” was not mentioned in the new GIS Monitor article, “GIS in Archaeology” I will be the better person and post about it anyway.

Pointed out by SlashGeo, the current issue of the GIS Monitor has an article focusing on the use of GIS in Archaeology. Stating that Archaeology is a perfect fit for the use of GIS, the article points out that Archaeology is the only humanity field to embrace GIS to a large degree. The material for this article is derived from a talk with Dr. Caverlee S. Cary from the Geographic Information Science Center at the University of California at Berkley. Dr. Cary and the GIS center have worked with archaeologists in the past and offered comments on how they see archaeologists using GIS.

GIS and archaeology are a perfect match, according to Cary, because linking attribute information to locations on the Earth’s surface “is exactly what archaeologists need to do when they are documenting a site. The core of archaeology is that you know exactly where on or in the ground any given object that has been discovered came from.”

One application that the article focuses on is the use of remotely sensed images in archaeology. Describing how aerial and satellite imagery is used for finding new sites, mapping known sites, and evaluating environmental conditions, Dr. Cary states that this application is new to archaeology. Although she is correct in here assertion of uses, Remote Sensing in archaeology has been around for nearly as long as remote sensing itself. Aerial photos have been a main stay of archaeological data from the beginning, as well, Landsat and other remotely sensed data has been brought into our work flow for 20+ years. I do not dispute that Dr. Cary is fully aware of the history of RS in archaeology (She is co-author to a paper on this topic at Berkley this week), but I want to give my readers an impression of the depth to its use.

My 2 cents

As suggested in my post on the Integration of GIS in Archaeology, Archaeologists have used GIS technology and techniques for quite some time. A single example would be the Computer Application and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology conferences that have been held since 1973. GIS like methods appeared in this conference in the early years and by the Early 90’s, it had become a stand alone topic.

In my job, we use GIS for many tasks from the management of historic resources, to sensitivity analysis, landscape modeling, 3D visualization, general cartography, scenario testing, and many more. Archaeology is a spatial discipline. We are taught from day one that once something is pulled out of the ground, it better be recorded well enough that in 100 years, someone can find that point on earth within a centimeter. Spatial accuracy is a hallmark of archaeology and a big reason why we jumped on the wagon so early. This is aside from the fact that we are nerdy bunch!

If anyone is interested to know more about he we use GIS in archaeology, give me a yell.

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As I mentioned last week, the current Spring 2006 issue of ESRI ArcNews, has a series of articles on the use of GIS in Archaeology and more specifically Cultural Resource Management. This post is a short synopsis of one particular article on the use of GIS for the creation of a state wide archaeological sessitiity model for Vermont.

Overview of VTASM (link to article)
The Vermont Archaeological Sensitivity Model (VTASM) is a joint project between the Vermont Division of Historic Preservation (DHP) and the Vermont Agency of Transportation (VTrans), created with the guidance of the University of Maine at Farmington Archaeology Reaserch Center (UMFARC), the University of Vermont Consulting Archaeology Program (UVMCAP), and ESRI business partner, Earth Analytic Inc.

In general, this model is an inductive environmentally based model using ESRI ArcGIS ModelBuilder, Spatial Analyst, and 3D analyst to produce a state wide, 10 m resultion coverage, demonstrating archaeological sensitivity. The creation of a state wide sensitvitiy model, such as this, follows a trend set by other states, paticulary, Minnisota and North Carolina.

Used during a projects planning phase, a model such as the VTASM, allows archaeologist and transprtation planners the ability to query the archaeological impact of a project or variations of a particualr design. By gauging the possible extent of impact on archaeoligcal resources, the planning agency can create a much more efficient budget or stear clear of potential large archaeological investigations. While this is the underlying theory behind wide scale models, as the stakeholders of the VTASM has recognized, sensitivity models are only abostractions of recorded archaeoligcal knowledge mated with modern environmnetal conditions to create a “best guess” of where sites may be located. Even though the VTASM produces high scores for predicability, it is a guide and not a subsititute for archaeological field survey.

As mentioned, the VTASM is created through the weighted sum of correlative distance buffers of a selection of environmental features. Through years of survey and knowledge, archaeoligsts build up mental models of archaeological site location. These models often include, distance from water, slope angle, proximity to wetland. The VTASM, and similar models, quantify site location knowledge, through a rule base or correlation statistics, into raster layers which when overlain are summed to achieve the overall sensitivity for each cell.

In the VTASM, the environemtnal atributes are computed into 11 environmental compnent models (ECMs). Six of the ECMs are computed for water related features such as streams, confulences, and wetlands. The remaining five ECMs are realted to lakes, floodplains, soils, slope, and glacial features. Each ECM is a sesitivity raster which assigns a weighted value based on the proximity to one or more environemtal attributes. For example, through correlation or survey findings, the project team knows that archaeoligical sites are more likely within a range of 100m to 200m of a stream confluence. Using this, the ECM is weigthed higher in the 100m to 200m buffer distance.

The final VTASM model, which is computed on the fly for the area under investigation, is the weighted sum total of all overlapping ECMs. The weights assigned to each ECM are adjustable and can be fine tuned based on the environmental character of the region under investigation.

A Bit about Sesitivtiy Modeling

An archaeological sensitivity model, often referred to as predictive models, is simply an expression of a single or multiple attributes that demonstrates the sensitivity (probablitity or possibility) that a specifiic location on earth has been utilized by people in the past. “In the past” may refer to 100 years ago or 100,000 years ago. In Vermont and the Eastern US, models such as this generally related to ~12,000 to ~500 years ago.

Sesitivty models, s described above, are often cell based raster grids created through map algebra of one form or another. The unit of analysis for raster based sensitivity models can be of any size, but generally, in accordance with the use of USGS Digital Elevation Models (DEM), a 10 meter or 30 meter resolution is used. In the Vermont example, the overal model is at a 10m resolution, which uses a combination of 30m and 8m Lidar DEMs.

Although the general technological underpinnings of sesntivity models are often the same, the theoretical guidlines can be substantially different. The two main catagories that archaeoligical sensitivty models are put into consist of Inductive or Deductive. The claimed difference between the two is “explanitory power”. Abstractly, an Inductive model (aka emprical model, correlative model) correlates known site location to environmental features to create a “fingerprint” for where sites most often are found. This type of model does not attempt to exmplain why sites are located where they are. On the other hand, Deductive sensitivity models attempt to use what we know of past human behaviors to create a explantion of why sites may be found in certain places. Explination of archaeoligcal phenomina is the primary goal of the deductive model.

Here is a great PDF [1.25 megs] that explains various types of sesitivity models.

The inductive/deductive divsion, in my mind, is akin to a major politcal debate drawn down party lines where each side is arguing the same darn thing but spun in thier favor. For your sake, my thoughts on the difference between the two will be save for a seperate post, but what is important to mention is that within Cultural Resource Managment (CRM) in America, the inductive model is most frequently used. This model has a solid history of test and application. The technical methodology is documented, repeatable, and testable. And most inportantly, it is the most cost effective way to consult the client on where it will cost them lots of money to put a road.

I’m sure some of these reasons are why the Vermont DHR and VTrans decided to build the VTASM the way they did. The model they created is flexible and testable. As archaeoligsts learn more and continue to survey the landscape, the model can be added too and tweak to ablige. The use of VTASM as a common model helps foster communication and trust between the DHR and the Transportation Athourity leading to the likleyhood of better archaeoligcal resource protection. As with Minnesota, North Carolina, and now Vermont, more states are bound to follow this example.

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In the current issue of ArcNews, ESRI is showcasing four articles on the use of GIS in archaeoloicial site managment. I have not yet had a chance to read these areticles, but plan to very shortly. Once read, I’ll through in my 2 cents with some comments. Until then, check them out for yourself.

GIS for Archaeological Database and Managment

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Administers Archaeological Sites with GIS

Modeling Archaeological Sensitivity in Vermont with GIS

Protecting Archaeological Resources During an Oil Spill in Washington State: Using GIS to Ensure Effective Communication and Protection

Prehistoric Sites on the Island of St. Kitts Studied Using GIS: Studying the Past to Understand Today’s Environment

Also, don’t miss the exclusive online article on Historic Preservation:

In New York State, the Olana Historic Site Viewshed Analysis Uses GIS: Preserving the Real-Life Landscapes of Frederick Church

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Released today in the Directions Magazine site, is a blurb about Timmons Group completion of the Virginia Department of Historic Resources (DHR) Data Sharing System (DSS). The DSS provides the DHR with the ability to store and disseminate data concerning architectural, historical, and archaeological resources, as well as, integrate resource based spatial analysis. Access to the DSS is granted to DHR employees, planners, property owners, developers and othe parties with a vested interest in DHR resources. This level of integration allows the DHR to make timely and informed decisions that are based on the input of those who are concerned. While the development of the DSS comes in the face of a shrinking work force at the VA DHR , the benefits of efficiency, quicker service, and a centralized database will help in maintaining the support and protection of VA’s cultural resources.

“DSS is an example of how Timmons Group can make the most of technology for state agencies and improve their effectiveness to serve the public, thereby helping them to become nationally recognized leaders,” said Dave Lucado, president of Timmons Group.

Having worked in a State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO) and helping with the creation of a agency wide Cultural Resource Data Portal, I am very glad to see another state take a huge step into the integration of cultural resource. Too often and in too many states, the DHR or SHPO acts much as a gate-keeper to valuable cultural data and the resources usually suffer for it. It is true that data such as archaeological site locations needs to be guarded, to some degree, though to view all cultural data as a privileged resource is detrimental to its protection. Systems such as the VA DSS allow planners, engineers, and clients to access the data with the freedom and availability that other environmental data is granted. This allows for the integration of cultural resource issues to be brought into the planning phase much earlier that in the past; in turn saving time and money. Further, system such as the DSS allow the employees at the DHR to access and study up to date cultural resource and contextual data to make the best informed and timely recommendation.

Many states have already started down this path, some have even reached a comfortable resting place, but many still need to begin. It is nearly inevitable that all states will need a system similar to this as long at the Federal laws protecting cultural resource are still standing. It looks like the Virginia DHR DSS will be a great model to follow.

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Here is a link to a well done tutorial for creating 3D models of buildings using historic plans. This tutorial utilizes Inkscape for the vector data and Blender for 3D modeling. Both programs are available freely, for multiple platforms, under open source licenses and have active development communities.
This tutorial is created by Sanna Tammisto & Ari Häyrinen at 3D-Bridge. 3D-Bridge, “Transferring of Cultural Heritage with New Technology”) is a pan-European group the is established to foster heritage preservation through the melding of opensource technology with a mulitperspective architectural practices. As stated in the 3D-Bridge site, there objectves are:

• The target of the 3D-Bridge project is to develop tools of new technology based on an open source policy for the research and preservation of cultural heritage.
• The 3D-Bridge project will highlight the common European contents of regional cultural heritage research based on different geographic, ecological and cultural starting points.
• The 3D-Bridge project will translate European cultural heritage into the language of future societies and media literate generationbels.

IF you are interested in this organizations like this, check out the recent post on IOSA.it, “Open Source Software and Open Standards in Archaeology”

*image property of 3D-Bridge

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ArcGIS and Archaeology: Practical Tutorials for the Use of ArcGIS in Archaeology is a cool site I ran across last week. Born out of the need to use GIS for research and the want to help other archaeologists who may be put into the GIS chair, this site provides background info on both GIS and ESRI ArcGIS products. Further, this site has a small collection of tutorials for some more common GIS/Archaeology applications, such as, creating contour lines, terrain modeling, and viewsheds. A nice looking site with a cool idea; I hope the author continues to add to the tutorial collection.

As a side note, I found this site with going through the large number of links at: Archaeological Research Resources. This is, courtesy of Historic Archaeological Research, has a ton of links for many aspects of archaeology, both research and field.

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A quick post from a current project. This is a SketchUp interpretation of a

historic structure from archaeological field data and historic records. Without going into too much detail, this is a quick image of a reconstructed 19th century paper mill that once stood in front of George Washington’s headquarters in Valley Forge, PA. While Washington was in tenure, the mill works included a Grist Mill and Saw Mill. In the 1840’s the Grist Mill burned and was rebuilt close to the original spot. Then in the 1860’s, the much larger paper mill was constructed, which encompassed the previous structures.The Model of Washington’s Headquarters is accurate to the modern standing reconstruction. Apparently, the building has been remodeled to its historic image at least three times.

Google Maps Link to Area

Google Earth Link to Area (sorry, no models)

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